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Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings – Cultural Developments

Class 12 History Chapter 4 Handwritten Notes

Here are the best Class 12 History Chapter 4 Handwritten Notes. Use them for your preparation.

1. Introduction

Period: 600 BCE – 600 CE → marked by intellectual & religious developments.
Rise of new philosophies, sects, religious architecture.
Sources: Vedic texts, Upanishads, Buddhist-Jain texts, inscriptions, archaeological remains.

2. Early Vedic and Upanishadic Thought

(a) Vedic Beliefs

Focus on rituals, sacrifices (yajnas), hymns.
Brahmanas → custodians of rituals.

(b) Upanishads (6th Century BCE)

Shifted from rituals to philosophy.
Key concepts:
1. Atman (soul)
2. Brahman (universal spirit)
3. Moksha (liberation)
Emphasis on knowledge & meditation.

3. Buddhism

(a) Founder: Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE)

Born: Lumbini
Enlightenment: Bodh Gaya
First Sermon: Sarnath
Death (Mahaparinirvana): Kushinagar

(b) Teachings

Four Noble Truths:
1. Life is suffering.
2. Desire = cause of suffering.
3. End desire → end suffering.
4. Follow Eight-fold Path.
Rejected caste, rituals; accepted ahimsa & meditation.

(c) Spread

Sangha → organisation of monks/nuns.
Supported by Mauryan rulers (Ashoka).
Split into Hinayana & Mahayana later.

4. Jainism

(a) Founder: Mahavira (599–527 BCE) – 24th Tirthankara

Predecessor: Parshvanatha.

(b) Teachings

Triratna (Three Jewels):
1. Right Faith
2. Right Knowledge
3. Right Conduct
Ahimsa, Truth, Non-possession.
Extreme asceticism.

(c) Spread

Adopted by traders & artisans.
Remained strong in western India.

5. Other Schools of Philosophy (Astika & Nastika)

Orthodox (Astika) → accepted Vedas

Nyaya – logic & reasoning.
Vaisheshika – atomistic theory.
Samkhya – dualism of matter (prakriti) & spirit (purusha).
Yoga (by Patanjali) – meditation, physical control.
Mimamsa – emphasis on Vedic rituals.
Vedanta/Upanishadic – monism, atman-brahman unity.

Heterodox (Nastika) → rejected Vedas

Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka (materialist philosophy).

6. The Sangha and Monastic Life

Membership open to all (except children, slaves, debtors).
Monks lived in viharas (monasteries).
Sangha preserved teachings & texts → crucial for Buddhism’s spread.

7. Stupas and Architecture

(a) Stupa

Dome-shaped mound → contained Buddha’s relics.
Features:
- Anda (dome)
- Harmika (square railing)
- Chatra (umbrella)
- Toranas (gateways)
- Pradakshina patha (circumambulation path)

📍 Examples: Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati.

(b) Chaityas & Viharas

Chaitya → prayer hall with stupa.
Vihara → monastery for monks.
Rock-cut caves (Ajanta, Ellora, Karle).

8. Art and Iconography

Gandhara School

Region: NW India (Kushanas).
Influence: Greco-Roman.
Buddha → realistic, draped like Roman statues.

Mathura School

Region: Mathura.
Indigenous style, red sandstone.
Buddha images → more symbolic.

Amaravati School

SE India.
Stupa reliefs → narrative sculptures.

9. Importance of Thinkers & Beliefs

Offered alternatives to Vedic rituals.
Promoted ahimsa, equality, meditation.
Philosophy shifted towards spiritual knowledge.
Architecture (stupas, caves) became symbols of culture.

📊 Tables for Revision

Table 1: Buddhism vs Jainism

Aspect	Buddhism	Jainism
Founder	Gautama Buddha	Mahavira
Path	Eight-fold path	Triratna
Attitude	Middle path (moderate)	Extreme asceticism
View on caste	Rejected	Rejected
Language	Pali	Prakrit

Table 2: Schools of Indian Philosophy

Astika (Vedic)	Nastika (Non-Vedic)
Nyaya	Buddhism
Vaisheshika	Jainism
Samkhya	Charvaka
Yoga
Mimamsa
Vedanta

Table 3: Features of Stupa Architecture

Feature	Description
Anda	Dome
Harmika	Square railing on top
Chatra	Umbrella-like symbol
Torana	Gateway
Patha	Circumambulation path

📅 Timeline

Period	Event
1500–600 BCE	Vedic religion → rituals & sacrifices
600 BCE	Rise of Jainism & Buddhism
563 BCE	Birth of Buddha
527 BCE	Death of Mahavira
483 BCE	Death of Buddha
3rd century BCE	Ashoka builds stupas (Sanchi)
1st century CE	Mahayana Buddhism emerges
1st–3rd century CE	Gandhara & Mathura schools
2nd–6th century CE	Ajanta & Ellora caves

10. Conclusion

The period 600 BCE – 600 CE saw remarkable intellectual, religious & cultural developments.
Buddhism & Jainism challenged orthodoxy.
Hindu philosophy developed parallelly.
Stupas, viharas, chaityas & cave temples stand as lasting monuments of India’s spiritual heritage.

Class 12 History Chapter 4 Handwritten Notes | Thinkers, Beliefs, and Buildings best handwritten Notes

Class 12 History Chapter 4 Handwritten Notes

1. Introduction